New Directions and Challenges of Social Sciences Assignment

New Directions and Challenges of Social Sciences - Assignment Example The fact that it has been labeled soft science can affect the perceived value of the discipline as well as the amount of funding available to it (Bernstein, 1983). A perfect example is during the late 2000s recessions where social science disproportionately cut from funding compared to mathematics and natural science, which was never touched. Numerous proposals were made for the National Science Foundation to cease funding all social sciences since they make no impact to development. Secondly, social sciences progress is considered nonlinear because many new ideas have to lead to revolutions while others have had lengthy gestation periods and ultimately met a protracted resistance (Bernstein, 1983). Furthermore, other new ideas have attained overly rapid and faddish acceptance that is usually followed by a quick dismissal. Bernstein further asserts that an earlier generation of research in retail management documented a myriad of characteristics attached to scientific progress, but it was never followed by trans-disciplinary studies that tested and developed the general theories that cropped out. Additionally, social sciences such as retail management deal with people. As such, it becomes difficult in isolating all the variables that may influence the outcome of any social science research. In fact, controlling the variable may even alter the results thus it is hard to devise an experiment in any a soft science. The last two decades, the science of retail management has indeed gained relevance and developed the wealth of instruments. Of great importance are the techniques that are used in carrying out an objective research. In spite of using research as a tool for finding answers to business problems, there still one big challenge: explicit assumptions. Most of these tacit assumptions undermine research more so, in retail management (Collins, 2001). Â  

Money laundering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Money laundering - Essay Example Furthermore, the ML does not have to involve physical exchange of money or currency. Modern concept therefore considers a transaction or formation of relationship to be a case of money laundering if it involves any form of property or benefit, tangible or intangible earned through criminal activity which includes tax evasion. ML does not necessarily require movement of criminal proceeds for being laundered. Thus, financial institutions especially banks can easily get involved in money laundering process when money earned in a legitimate activity and deposited into a bank account in another country by a person becomes a laundered money assumed as done with the connivance of the bank if he fails to declared the earnings in his tax return in the country in which it has been earned and the bank also fails to report it as s suspicious activity (Hopton 2009). The USA Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) has defined money laundering as â€Å"the criminal practice of filtering il l-gotten gains† or â€Å"dirty† currency through a sequence of dealings, so the currency is â€Å"cleaned† to appear as if earned by lawful conduct (McClean 2007). Criminals resort to money laundering to legitimise substantial portion of their ill-gotten wealth as otherwise they cannot put it to use. Moreover, they do not need the entire money for their ongoing criminal ventures. They are motivated to launder their tainted money in order to have respectful postitions in society by investing the money so earned in respectable avenues. The proceeds of crime were once said to channel through launderettes in the USA to enable the actual notes to be offered as lawful commercial income, thus earning the expression â€Å"Money Laundering† (McClean 2007). Money Laundering process It involves three stages as per the tradition. First, placement of funds of criminal origin in to the financial system through direct or indirect means. Second, resorting to layering by w hich receipt of criminal proceeds are blurred through creation of layers of financial transactions with the object of hiding the audit trail and providing anonymity. Third, after successful layering, integration process pumps the laundered money into the mainstream economy so as to make them appear as funds received during the course of business. These stages are subtle in that they more often overlap or take place simultaneously (Hopton 2009). The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) FATF is autonomous body representing various governments and entrusted with introduction of measures to ensure against ML and providing funds for terrorism using the global financial system. The recommendations of FATF are required to be implemented to counter money laundering and considered as the standard for anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terrorist financing (CTF) (FATF 2010). Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) FINRA is the autonomous regulatory body of the USA governing activiti es of securities firms in the United Sates. Anti-money laundering compliance program of FINRA requires each member to develop anti-money laundering program so designed as to monitor the member’s compliance with the requirements of the Bank Secrecy Act (31 USC) (FINRA n.d.). Suspicious Activity Report (SAR) Suspicious Activity Reporting is the requirement to be complied with by all financial institutions such as banks, credit unions, brokers or dealers in securities

Athletes and their Impacts on Endorsement of Sportswear Literature review

Athletes and their Impacts on Endorsement of Sportswear - Literature review Example Others include prominent businessmen and politicians. Apart from their careers and appearances in events, celebrities act as spokesmen for different brands in their promotion (Kambitsis et al. 2002, p. 160). This paper will analyze the effect of celebrity (athlete) endorsements in sportswear marketing on the consumer's perception of the product and overall purchasing decision. â€Å"A celebrity endorser is a person who is known by the public for his or her achievements in areas other than that of the product class he or she is endorsing† (Friedman & Friedman 1979, p. 63). This is one of the forms of celebrities that are use by companies in order to promote their products. The reason for use of celebrities is engrained in the influence that they command be it on a national or international stage. Sportsmen and women in particular have been utilized for promotion of a wide range of products most of which include sportswear and energy drinks. Athletes compared to ordinary people have a higher chance of commanding attention. Solomon (2002, p. 50) asserts that the perception that consumers get from brands being endorsed by celebrities is that they are interesting. This is also accompanied by a feeling of connection and positivity with the brands. There is a guarantee that the use of celebrities in promotional ventures will elicit a positive attitude towards the brands and in turn will affect the intentions to purchase. The main reason why people advertise is to persuade customers to buy their products. The whole purpose is pegged on the capability of the producers to alter the attitudes of the consumers. As persuasion is the pillar of this process, credibility in advertisements must be projected for the brand to receive the necessary attention. Athletes especially project trustworthiness, persuasiveness, expertise and objectiveness when used in advertisements (Till & Shimp 1998, p. 72). The customers are also attracted to the brands due to the attractiveness of the personality who is its spokesperson. The attractiveness is classified according to the person?s physical appearance, the relation that can be drawn with the consumer, likeability and the personality. Although the use of athletes is reliant on their skills, some of them are utilized because of their physical appearance that is not so much on the physical attractiveness but on the physique. Ohanian (1991, p. 52) asserts that the use of attractive celebrities as spokespeople is more effective than the use of others who are not as attractive. A halo effect is assumed where the excellence of a person in one direction is associated with excellence in another. An example is that the physical attractiveness of a person being related to coolness or happiness. There is an interaction between the brand and the spokesperson endorsing it. Friedman and Friedman (1979, p. 60) assert that â€Å"a famous relative to a ‘normal’ spokesperson is more effective for products high in psychological or social risk, involving such elements as good taste, self-image, and opinion of others.† There are numerous studies that have been done with the aim of examining the effectiveness that celebrities have as brand spokespeople. Martin (1996, p. 32) conducted such a study that there are those endorsements that performed exemplarily whereas others miserably failed. Michael Jordan’

Bible vs. Mythology Essay Example for Free

Bible vs. Mythology Essay There are many similarities and differences between Greek Mythology and The Bible. Whether it’s the creation of man and women, or the universe, stories have been told throughout time and some can be alike and others completely different. There are people that have gathered, translated and recorded all of these events for us now to learn about. Whether a person believes it is true or not is up to them but if a God is real how come the stories between these two different beliefs can be so similar. A strong similarity is the creation of man and the universe. However the Greek Myths and the Bible have many differences when it comes to how and why everything happened. A comparison between these two is the creation of the universe. In Genesis 1:1 it states that â€Å"the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters† (Genesis 1:2). Then throughout seven days, God created light, the sky, the sea, plants, stars, birds, animals that live in water, livestock, and finally mankind to rule over all the others. Everything starts off as a dark, empty void much like in the Greek Myths. In Mythology there was a lot of chaos to begin until Tethis the first mother mated with an endless river to create Gaia, Tartarus, and Eros. After that, Gaia (Mother Earth) mated with Ouranos (the sky) and created the Titans. The Greek God’s created all the living beings on Earth because they were bored and had nothing else to do. Unlike God it did not take seven days to create all. The Greek God’s would just think of something and it would happen. Prometheus was given the task to mold the animals from clay and Epimetheus gave them their unique abilities. In the Bible, whatever Adam called the animal was what it was named. With humans however, it took many tries for mankind to be created and with both the Bible and Mythology, there was a flood to wipe out everything. In the creation of men, both in the Bible and Myths, he was created from the earth. In the Bible man was formed from dust and God breathed life into him. When humans became so corrupted, God sent a flood to kill everything on earth. He spared Noah and his family along with seven pairs of every animal on Earth to repopulate once the flood had passed. There are two versions  from which men were created in Greek Mythology. Homer’s version is that man was molded from clay by Prometheus but was not given any special power because Epimetheus forgot about them. Hesiod’s version was that of a series of races: gold, silver, bronze, heroes, and iron. The time of the golden men was when Kronos ruled and everything was an easy, perfect paradise until they vanished. Silver was under Zeus’ rule when man had a short maturity and horrible old age. They were arrogant and disappeared under the earth. During the bronze era of man there was constant warfare until Zeus sends a flood to kill all of mankind. After that, the heroes followed, a time of mighty mortals who battled monsters and had a peaceful afterlife. Finally the era of the iron man, a balance towards fighting and attitude to the Gods. This time is also the time of the creation of women. Nowadays people don’t see women as evil but in the Bible and Myth’s women are defined as â€Å"beautiful and evil creatures† (Gods and Goddesses). The first woman, Eve, was created from the rib of Adam so women are the flesh and blood of man. Adam and Eve are the first humans in the Bible and at first all is serene and happy that is until Eve eats from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. The serpent tricks her into eating the fruit and Eve shares it with Adam. Because of this Eve is evil for sharing the knowledge to Adam and leveling with God. In Greek Mythology, Prometheus and Epimetheus warn their children Deucalion and Pyrrha about the impending flood. They build an ark on which they survive and reach Mount Parnassus. That is where they consult the goddess Themis on how to repopulate the Earth. Deucalion was told: â€Å"You and your wife are to veil your heads, and as you walk from my sanctuary, throw behind you the bones of your mother† (Waterfield, Robin). So Deucalion and Pyrrha threw behind them rocks, the bones of Gaia and the rocks that Pyrrha threw formed women and the rocks Deucalion threw formed men. Another version on the creation of women is the story of Pandora and her box. Prometheus as the God of mankind is always looking out for them. He tricks Zeus into choosing the worthless offering and gives humans the better portion. As punishment Zeus takes fire from humans but Prometheus steals it back. Outraged, Zeus asks Hephaestus to forge a woman. Athena and Aphrodite taught her womanly skills, grace, and allure. Hermes gave her a cunning mind and a thieving temperament. Pandora  was sent down to Earth with a box in which all the horrible things in the world were inside. Eventually her curiosity got the best of her and Pandora opened the box unleashing all the evils into the world. This is why women are seen as beautiful and evil. Although people might think that these two subjects seem totally unrelated. They have much more in common than thought possible. This is only scratching the surface of the enormity of the comparisons between these two subjects. The main idea may be the same of a lot of these but there are many different versions separating the Bible from Greek Mythology. Works Cited Gods and Goddesses. AE Television Networks The History Channel, 2001. DVD Waterfield, Robin, and Kathryn Waterfield. The Greek Myths: Stories of the Greek Gods and Heroes Vividly Retold. London: Quercus, 2011. Print. The Bible

Concepts of Bias in the Media

Concepts of Bias in the Media What is Media Bias? What is media bias? It is the perception, correct or incorrect, that television, print, and online content particularly journalism lacks objectivity and either consciously or unconsciously skews to favor a particular ideology, agenda, or point of view, political or otherwise. The term is generally (though not exclusively) employed by conservatives who are frustrated by their perception that the news media is relentlessly liberal and unfair in its coverage of news events. A simple Google search of the phrase media bias in fact turns up an overwhelmingly disproportionate number of conservative or rightward leaning sites raging against liberal bias in the news. Arguably, then, media bias is a term that is used as a tool in political warfare: The press is often thought of as a unified voice with a distinct bias (right or left depending on the critic). This simplistic thinking fits the needs of ideological struggle, but is hardly useful in coming to a better understanding of what is hap pening in the world. (Cline, 2005) Deeper insight is critical into understanding what media bias is, beyond a buzz phrase. It is perhaps unlikely that true objectivity is possible given the inherently subjective nature of human perception and experience. Human communication always takes place in a context, through a medium, and among individuals and groups who are situated historically, politically, economically, and socially. (Cline, 2005) Balance in journalism, however, is not only possible but also desirable. It is also possible and desirable for journalists to be aware of their own prejudices and/or biases and to adjust the methodology of their news reporting accordingly. Taking pains to seek out as many sides of an issue as can be reasonably included in a story is the minimum a journalist can do to ensure balance, even if complete objectivity is ultimately unfeasible. To the extent that it occurs, however, bias is neither necessarily inherently unfair, nor does it necessarily imply untruth. Facts are facts, and although they can be used selectively and manipulated to support a certain ideological point of view, the truth is ultimately what a good journalist seeks, or at least a fair array of facts which allows the consumer of the news report to come to his or her own conclusion as to what the truth is. In his Media / Political Bias essay, news media professor Andrew R. Cline poses a variety of questions which may be used to determine whether media bias truly exists in any given news story. Here are a few of them: What is the authors / speakers socio-political position? With what social, political, or professional groups is the speaker identified? For example, numerous recent reports have shown that various departments in the United States government (including the Department of Defense, Social Security Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services) have been producing news segments, complete with fictional reporters and anchors hired by the government, which are then dispersed to television and radio stations as if they were press releases. In many cases, news outlets have run these spots unedited and without attribution explaining that the source is the government. This practice by the Bush Administration has provoked outrage from all political corners, some of which have dubbed the practice propagandistic and fascistic. Given the conservative ideological slant of the Bush Administration, it is unreasonable to assume that these faux news segments are without bias, particular ly after the Administration publicly rejected the finding of the Congressional Government Accountability Office that such stories designed to resemble independently reported broadcast news stories so that TV stations can run them without editing violate provisions in annual appropriations laws that ban covert propaganda. (Lee, 2005) Who would the government go out of its way to give itself permission to not disclose to media outlets that the Bush Administration produced its pre-packaged news segments? As alluded to above, the mere fact of their engaging in such activity does not mean that the positions advocated by the government are without merit or lacking in factual accuracy, but it is peculiar, if the Administration believes in the factual veracity of its productions, that they are unwilling to let them be subjected to scrutiny. It is therefore incumbent upon the news stations to reveal the source of these news segments, and/or seek other points of view with which to balance t he point of view articulated in these segments. Does the speaker have anything to gain personally from delivering the message? Making headlines of late in the United States is the so-called right-to-life case of Terri Schialvo, a brain-dead woman who has been on life support since an accident in 1990 that left her in a coma. Her husband and legal guardian has on twelve separate occasions received the blessing of a variety of courts to disconnect her feeding tube and allow her to die, saying he is convinced that not only does she have no hope of recovery, but she would not have wanted to live in such a vegetative fashion. However, Miss Schialvos parents disagree and want her kept alive. They hired a spokesman to handle all their media interactions, a man by the name of Randall Terry. Who is Mr. Terry? He was famous as an anti-abortion activist in the 1980s and 1990s, whose organization Operation Rescue advocated harassment and violence as a means to stop abortions and to conduct protests at abortion clinics. A 1998 lawsuit put a st op to Operation Rescues activities, leaving Mr. Terry without his key cause, and, presumably, means to earn a living. Can Mr. Terry be trusted as an objective, fair spokesperson for Terri Schialvo, given his bias? Is his goal an altruistic one, i.e. simply to save Terri Schialvos life, such that it is, or does he have another agenda, to further his own career and the cause of the religious fundamentalists who refuse to accept the various court decisions giving Mr. Schialvo the right to terminate his wifes life? Mr. Terrys own words may give some insight into his ultimate goals: In a 1995 speech, for example, Terry reportedly said of doctors who perform abortions, When I, or people like me, are running the country, youd better flee, because we will find you, we will try you and we will execute you. (Miner, 2003) This is a peculiarly ironic and hypocritical warning, given Mr. Terrys proclamation in defense of the sanctity of human existence: Life is life. (Miner, 2003) Given these fac ts, it is unlikely Mr. Terry can be trusted to be unbiased or objective given his ulterior motives and personal belief system both of which he is entitled to, but ought to be fairly and fully disclosed by those reporting on the Terry Schialvo case. How does the speaker present arguments? Is the message one-sided, or does it include alternative points of view? Does the speaker fairly present alternative arguments? Does the speaker ignore obviously conflicting arguments? If the message includes alternative points of view, how are those views characterized? Does the speaker use positive words and images to describe his/her point of view and negative words and images to describe other points of view? Does the speaker ascribe positive motivations to his/her point of view and negative motivations to alternative points of view? The most effective way to explore this series of questions is to utilize the macro-example of the Fox News Channel, owned by Rupert Murdochs News Corporation, employs the slogans We Report, You Decide and Fair and Balanced, when in fact Fox News is anything but. First, the chairman of Fox News, Roger Ailes, was the campaign manager for George Bush, Sr.s 1988 presidential campaign, and a political consultant for several subsequent Republican candidates. The 2004 documentary Outfoxed obtained internal Fox News memos that documented directives from senior management instructing news editors, assignment editors, and anchors to focus on stories mirroring talking points issued by the Republican Party on a daily basis. Notably, the Republican Party line that Democratic Senator John Kerry, George W. Bushs opponent in the 2004 presidential campaign, was a flip-flopper, is employed dozens of times by Fox News anchors out of the context of editorials, following a March 16, 2004 memo from Fox Ne ws executive John Moody setting the story of the day, which says, Kerry, starting to feel the heat from his flip-flop voting record, is in West Virginia. The documentary also shows several clips in which Fox News anchors deliver other shockingly unfair and unbalanced lines on-air, such as Assuming the unthinkable happen and Senator Kerry becomes president Former Fox News reporter John DuPre details how he was sent to California to cover Ronald Reagans 90th birthday party at the Reagan Library, only to find only a handful of citizens had showed up; when he tried to tell his superiors there was no story to be covered, he was told to lie on air that a huge crowd had amassed nonetheless. Later, DuPre was suspended and then resigned. The media watchdog organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) conducted a study analyzing six months of Fox News Channel programming (June to December 2003) to see if, in fact, the proportion of its guests political viewpoints was indeed fair and balanced. The study determined that 57 percent of guests were explicitly conservative, 12 percent were centrist, and 11 percent were liberal or progressive. These data speak for themselves. Another remarkable aspect of Fox News Channels analysis of current events and news is the way in which it characterizes opinions that run counter to the conservative Republican point of view. Outfoxed shows conservative talk show host Bill OReilly repeatedly demanding on several different occasions that his liberal guests shut up when they disagree with him after OReilly denies on camera that he has only silenced a guest once in such a manner. When OReilly guest Jeremy Glick, whose parents were killed in the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center, expressed his opinion that President Bush had helped create a foreign policy environment which fomented the hatred of Al Qaida against the United States, OReilly flew into a rage and threatened bodily harm on the air to Glick unless he left the building. On the Fox News Channel talk show Hannity Colmes, co-host Sean Hannity taunted actress Janine Garofolos stance against the Iraq war by taunting her: Saddam Hussein loves you. Ultimately, one of the most damning statistics is an October 2003 poll of regular Fox News viewers which showed that 67% believed the United States had found a link between Iraq and Al Qaida, an assertion completely unsupported by facts and explicitly rejected by President Bushs bipartisan 9/11 Commission. Can any reasonable person come to the conclusion that Fox News Channel is seeking to provide the truth to its viewing audience? What is even more chilling, however, is that several Rupert Murdoch-owned media outlets in Australia refused to run ads for Outfoxeds theatrical release in that country, claiming the film was offensive, and (unsuccessfully) threatened lawsuits to prevent its release in the United States. Fox News Channel has the First Amendment freedom to say whatever it cares to on-air, whether it be right-wing propaganda or anything at all; what is intellectually disingenuous is that the channel refuses to acknowledge its bias, and instead employs a blatantly false marketing technique to assure viewers of its journalistic objectivity. Former Fox News producer Jeff Cohen says in Outfoxed that a better slogan for Fox News would be We opine, you recline. This witty remark cuts to the heart of the issue, which is that Fox News is and should be free to be an outlet for right-wing editorializing, but it is nothing less than a travesty for a powerful 24-hour cable news channel to pretend to be a reputable source for objective reporting. To be fair to Murdoch, he has made no public secret of his wish to balance what he perceives to be the liberal bias of such media outlets as CNN, CBS News, and the New York Times, but none of these sources of news employ the crass, manipulative distortions employed by Fox News Channel. The one example, perhaps, is the story on CBS 60 Minutes program in which famed anchor Dan Rather delivered a story purporting to show documents proving George W. Bush had illegally avoided military service during Vietnam. It was subsequently determined that the documents may have been forged, and not properly vetted in a rush to air the story in time to affect the 2004 presidential election. The resulting scandal led to Rathers early retirement. These sorts of incidents, however, are few and far between in comparison to Fox News Channels regular journalistic transgressions. In forming Fox News, what Murdoch may have reacted against legitimately is the irrefutable fact that most journalists are left-leaning in their personal political views. 1997, the American Society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE) surveyed over 1,000 journalists, asking What is your political leaning? The results? 61% said Democrat or liberal-leaning; 15% said conservative or Republican-leaning, and the rest identified themselves as independents or centrists. Not only that, but the proportion of journalists identifying themselves as conservative or Republican-leaning had declined 7% since the survey was first taken in 1988, whereas the liberal-leaning/Democratic statistic was unchanged. Is it possible for these 61% to not consciously or unconsciously let their personal views affect the way in which they report the news? The political proportions found in the ASNE rather closely resemble the political proportions of the guests on Fox News Channel, except in reverse. Nobody can say whether this is a coincidence or not, but Murdochs formula is certainly enjoying a considerable amount of success. Fox News ratings are even eclipsing those of longtime cable news giant CNN: [As of March 2, 2005] FNC averaged 1.57 million viewers in primetime, up 18 percent from the same period last year, while CNN fell 21 percent to 637,000 viewers from the same time period The growth appeared across the board at Fox News: On the Record With Greta Van Susteren up 37 percent; Hannity Colmes up 19 percent; Special Report With Brit Hume up 20 percent; and The OReilly Factor, up 9 percent. (WorldNetDaily, 2005) Clearly there is a hunger for what Fox News is peddling, whether it be garbage or truly fair and balanced. The real question is why Murdoch and Roger Ailes arent simply calling Fox News exactly what it is: an unashamedly biased and partisan source of conservative propaganda. What, indeed, is wrong with bias as long as there are a fair number of balanced biased outlets available for people to choose from? As alluded to before, Murdoch and Ailes are perfectly entitled to program their cable channel any way they care to; it is within their First Amendment right to do so. However, given the fact that millions of people tune in to Fox News, in many cases solely to Fox News, to become informed, it is a travesty of journalism that Murdoch and Ailes arent being honest about what their channel is peddling. If they were to claim that CBS and the New York Times are not honest about the liberal slant of their journalistic wares, then the challenge for Fox News is to one-up its rivals in integrity by being honest about what it is. Until such time, as they do, they are the ultimate example of media bia s; they are not a cure for the problem, but a mutation of a terrible virus. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cline, Dr. Andrew R. Media / Political Bias, University of Missouri, 2005. Lee, Christopher. Administration Rejects Ruling on PR Videos, Washington Post, March 14, 2005. Miner, Barbara. Randall Terry Resurfaces: Christian Right Jumps into Terri Schiavo Fray In These Times, November 24, 2003. Outfoxed, documentary produced and directed by Robert Greenwald, Carolina Productions / MoveOn.org / The Disinformation Company, 2004 American Society of Newspaper Editors Survey, 1997. Available from: http://www.asne.org/kiosk/reports/97reports/journalists90s/survey19.html CNN Tanking as Fox News Surges, WorldNetDaily, March 2, 2005

Dilemmas in Assessment of Student Writing :: English Writing Teacher Student

Being a new teacher of English, I find the assessment of compositions to be a concept I question and struggle with on a regular basis. Having consulted several colleagues, mentors, administrators, and fellow graduate students, I have come to the conclusion that there is no easy answer to this tedious yet ever important question. While there are many inlets and outlets to this dilemma, for the sake of time I will touch on only three. While all three are very different in terms of concepts, rituals, and conducts, they all come together to one common goal - helping students express themselves in terms of writing. Subjectivity While assessment can give students, parents, and administrators a view of where a student stands in terms of achievement, one must always remember that the grade is subjective. There is no right or wrong answer in English, as there is in math or other quantitative areas of study. The basis of â€Å"a grade† depends upon a student’s ability to choose a course of thought and convey it accurately and convincingly in written form. The subjectivity falls in how the teacher interprets or responds to the ideas and supporting information. For example, during my first venture as a student teacher, I was given the task of grading â€Å"free choice† essays. The students were given free range of the subject matter, and were told to write an insightful and poignant essay on the topic of their choice. After grading the papers, my mentor sat with me and we discussed some of the grades I had given for several of the students’ papers. Upon glancing briefly at the comments I had made and the grades I had given, my mentor began asking direct questions as to why I would grade certain papers one way, but would assign a different grade to others that were quite similar. As she went on to read through other papers, she would agree with some of my grades, but strongly disagree with others. I found this interesting because, while we were both reading the same essays, we were focusing on different points or concepts, which shaded our perception of the piece as a whole. In retrospect, I believe that afternoon spent rereading essays with my mentor was one of the best teaching practices that I have come across. Once in a while, teachers needed to refocus their grading instincts by, in effect, orally defending their stance on grading policies.

A Kinetic Study of the Base Catalyzed Cleavage

The University of Lethbridge Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry Chemistry 2740 Laboratory Experiment 2 A KINETIC STUDY OF THE BASE CATALYZED CLEAVAGE OF DIACETONE ALCOHOL USING A DILATOMETER The decomposition of diacetone alcohol into two molecules of acetone is catalyzed by hydroxide ions and is an example of an aldol condensation in reverse. O OH OHO 2CH3-C-CH3 CH3-C-CH2-C(CH3)2 The rate of decomposition is first-order with respect to the concentrations of both diacetone alcohol and hydroxide ion: Rate = k[OH-][diacetone alcohol] (1)However, since hydroxide ion is a catalyst its concentration remains constant during the reaction. The overall reaction appears first-order (i. e. is a â€Å"pseudo first order reaction†) and follows the observable rate law Rate = k' [diacetone alcohol] where k' = k [OH-] (2) Since the overall reaction is first-order we can study the kinetics of the reaction by measuring any property of the system that undergoes a change which is proportional to the extent of reaction. Such a property in this case is the volume of the reaction solution.The effective volume of one molecule of diacetone alcohol is not the same as the effective volume of two molecules of acetone and as a result the total volume of the reaction solution changes as the reaction proceeds. In this case the solution expands although in some reactions it contracts. A simple instrument for measuring volume changes is a dilatometer which consists of a glass bulb to which is attached a tube with a stopcock (for filling the bulb) and also a piece of long capillary tubing.The bulb is filled with reaction solution to the point where liquid just enters the capillary tube and then the stopcock on the filling tube is closed. As the solution expands it does so into the capillary tube causing the meniscus in the tube to rise. By measuring the distance up the capillary tube that the meniscus travels one has a measure of the volume change. One can determine the actual volume change if the crosssectional area of the capillary is known but even that is not necessary in this experiment.Since the position of the meniscus in the capillary column can be measured accurately using a cathetometer, this is a good experiment to test the Guggenheim method for determining first-order rate constants (refer to Appendix A on â€Å"First-order Reactions†). In this method readings are generally made at times t0, t1, t2, t3, etc. , with each reading Page 2 – 1 Chemistry 2740 Laboratory Experiment 2 taken at a constant, accurately determined time interval after the preceding measurement. The resulting data list is divided into equal halves.For example, if there are 20 readings taken at times t 0 – t19 with corresponding measurements P0 – P19, the data would be divided in two between readings P9 at t 9 and P10 at t10. Next, the differences between the measurements in the two data sets are taken, i. e. , P0-P10, P1-P11, P2-P12, etc. Notice that t he time interval between each pair of readings is constant. Finally a plot of the natural logarithm of the differences against time, i. e. , ln(P0-P10), ln(P1-P11),†¦ vs. t0, t 1,†¦ should yield a straight line of slope -k, the first-order rate constant.Apparatus Cathetometer, 3 dilatometers, timer. A dilatometer is a device for measuring the expansion (or contraction) of a liquid. Ours is of relatively simple design and was made locally by Luis Delgado from various pieces of glassware. It consists of an expansion bulb to which is attached a fine capillary tube with a narrow and hopefully uniform bore. The expansion tube is connected at the other end to a filling tube through a stopcock. When the stopcock is closed, a solution in the expansion tube can only expand up the capillary tube.The volume of liquid in a capillary or cylinder is given by the cross-sectional area, A, of the cylinder times its length, l (V = A x l). Thus by measuring the travel, ? l, of the liquid up the capillary tube one has a quantity that is proportional to the change in volume of the reaction mixture (? V = A x ? l). As a result one can follow first order reactions with a dilatometer and use the first order equation ln [(lo – l? ) / (lt – l? )]= kt Stopcock Capillary tube Filling tube Expansion bulb (3) A Dilatometer and other equations such as the Guggenheim equation that are derived from it to analyze the results.This assumes that ? l (and therefore ? V) is proportional to the extent of reaction. One must be careful with thermostating when using a dilatometer. A dilatometer, after all, is a glorified thermometer and a quite sensitive one at that. Thus the apparatus and the reaction solution must be pre-equilibrated to the temperature of the reaction. The Page 2 – 2 Chemistry 2740 Laboratory Experiment 2 dilatometer is filled by pouring reaction mixture into the filling tube. Try to pour down the centre of the tube and not down the walls of the tube.Al so do not fill the filling tube above the level of the water in the water bath because the part of the filling tube above water level will not be well thermostated. Next the reaction mixture must be forced into the expansion bulb by use of a rubber bulb applied to the top opening of the filling tube. Often air bubbles become trapped just below the stopcock. These can be removed by sucking back with the rubber bulb. Continue to add more reaction mixture to the filling tube, as necessary. Force reaction mixture into the expansion bulb until the liquid level reaches the top of the bulb just below the capillary tube.Stop forcing liquid into the bulb and allow the liquid level to rise into the capillary tube as a result of the flow of liquid from the filling tube to the expansion bulb. DO NOT FORCE LIQUID INTO THE CAPILLARY TUBE. Close the stopcock. The dilatometer is now ready for making measurements of the meniscus height. The cathetometer is a device for measuring the relative height of the liquid column in the capillary. It consists of a vertical steel rod with a scale marked along its length and a telescope that runs up and down the rod.In operation one measures the height of the liquid column by moving the telescope so that the cross-hair is focussed on the meniscus of the liquid column. The position of the telescope (and thus the meniscus) is then read off the scale on the bar with the aid of a vernier. Ensure that you can read the vernier scale (refer to Appendix B on â€Å"Reading a Vernier†) and can operate the telescope (focus, movement up and down, and leveling) before proceeding with measurements. Reagents Diacetone alcohol, ~ 0. 40 M NaOH. Waste Disposal A 4-litre bottle for the collection of wastes is supplied with the experimental set up.All excess stock reagents and reaction solutions should be disposed of in this bottle. The glassware can then be given a single small rinse into the waste container before being cleaned further in the sink. I n preparing reaction solutions only remove as much reagent from the stock container as is necessary to make the reaction mixtures. Page 2 – 3 Chemistry 2740 Laboratory Experiment 2 Procedure Notes: 1) In order to finish this lab in the time allotted, students must be well organized and prepared to start this experiment at the beginning of the period. 2) The ~ 0. 40 M NaOH solution will need to be standardized by each group.This can be done before or after the experiment is completed, but must be done before the calculations for the report are started. Students can arrange a suitable time for this with their instructor. (Note: A similar task was performed in Chemistry 1000 lab; it may be helpful for you to review that procedure. ) Three kinetic runs should be performed at hydroxide ion concentrations of approximately 0. 100, 0. 200 and 0. 400 M. Prepare 100 mL each of 0. 100 M and 0. 200 M sodium hydroxide solutions from the 0. 400 M solution provided. Allow a dilatometer to t hermostat in the 25 ° C water bath. Pipette exactly 50 mL of 0. 00 M NaOH solution into a 200 mL Erlenmeyer flask, stopper the flask, and allow it to thermostat in the bath as well. When the dilatometer and sodium hydroxide solution have been thermostated for at least 10 minutes, start the reaction by adding with a pipette 2 mL of diacetone alcohol into the flask containing the 50 mL of 0. 100 M NaOH solution. Stopper the flask, shake it vigorously to ensure mixing and then let it stand in the water bath for a short period to allow the bubbles to settle. Pour the settled solution into the filling tube of the dilatometer and proceed to fill the dilatometer as outlined above.When the solution enters the capillary close the stopcock on the filling tube ensuring that no bubbles remain in the bulb. Clamp the dilatometer firmly in place in the bath so that the expansion bulb is covered with water. Commence reading the height of the meniscus in the capillary column with the cathetometer and continue to do so at exactly 3-minute intervals for at least 15 readings (45 minutes). The first reading can be obtained by clamping the telescope so that the cross-hair is just above the meniscus; start the clock as the meniscus climbs to the crosshair. Because the telescope inverts its image, the meniscus will appear to be below the cross-hair when it is actually above and the meniscus will appear to be travelling down when it is actually travelling up the capillary. ) Subsequent readings will require close cooperation between lab partners. One person should follow the meniscus with the telescope while the other partner gives out the time so that the first partner can clamp the telescope in position at exactly 3-minute intervals. Page 2 – 4 Chemistry 2740 Laboratory Experiment 2 When the readings have been completed put the dilatometer aside and proceed to the second experiment.While the first experiment is being performed, the dilatometer and the 50 mL of sodium hydrox ide solution for the second experiment should be clamped in the bath to thermostat. Repeat the procedure using 0. 200 M NaOH and 0. 400 M NaOH in place of 0. 100 M NaOH and with time intervals of 1. 5 and 0. 75 minutes respectively. In the case of the run using 0. 400 M NaOH, allow the reaction to go to completion and then read the height of the meniscus. Before leaving the laboratory, please enter names, date, and experimental data into the computer. DO NOT FORGET TO ENTER YOUR STANDARDIZATION DATA INTO THE COMPUTER ONCE YOU HAVE OBTAINED IT.Calculations and Report Use the Guggenheim method to calculate the apparent first-order rate constants (k’) for each run. For the last run, also calculate k’ using equation (3). Compare the rate constants calculated by the two methods and discuss the validity of using the Guggenheim method to calculate rate constants (i. e. discuss if the value calculated using the Guggenheim method compares favourably to the value calculated usin g the standard method). Calculate the second-order rate constants (k) in each case and discuss this confirmation of the first-order dependence on hydroxide ion concentration. Page 2 – 5